Ibn al-'Arabī

Spanish-born Muslim philosopher (1165-1240) who spoke of the "unity of existence," and the creative imagination that sees things in the barzakhi realm as though in a mirror.

Ibn Rushd

(1126-1198), Spanish-born Arab Islamic philosopher known to the West as Averroës, who translated many of Aristotle's works into Latin from Arabic and Hebrew.

Ibn Sīnā

(980-1037) Persian Islamic philosopher known to the West as Avicenna; perhaps the first scholastic philosopher; wrote Neoplatonic allegories that impacted Ṣūfī thought.

icon

Image; a two-dimensional visual representation of a saintly figure that introduces the viewer to that figure in the imaginal realm; widely used in Orthodox Christianity.

iconoclastic controversy

Arguments over whether or not icons should be used. The debate first occupied the Christian world (especially Byzantium) for over a century starting in 730 CE.

Ifá

A system of divination that originated among the Yoruba peoples of West Africa.

Ignatius Loyola

(1491-1556) Founder of the Roman Catholic Jesuit order during the Catholic Counter-Reformation.

iḥrām

A state of ritual purity adopted by Muslim pilgrims before entering Mecca and circling the Ka'bah.

Ilme-e Khshnum

Term meaning "knowledge of joy," used as the name of a modern esoteric Zoroastrian movement that bears kinship with Hindu spirituality.

imaginal realm

The a-historical realm of "reality" where immaterial beings abide.

imām

Honorific title for a Muslim who leads the daily prayers; refers to divinely sanctioned spiritual-political leaders in Shī'ī Islam.

incarnation

A physical body through which an immaterial body of another being comes into this world; most Christians use this term with reference to Jesus because he is considered to be God born into the flesh; based on a Latin word meaning "made flesh."

indigenous peoples

Early inhabitants of a place who have a longstanding cultural association to their geographical region prior to its colonization or annexation as a modern nation-state

indulgences

Certificates representing acts of penance sold through the Roman Catholic Church; Martin Luther criticized these for representing transactions with God, and diverting funds to Rome.

Injīl

Term in the Qur'ān for the Gospel of the Christians.

insider-outsider challenge

The challenge for people to adopt both inside and outside positions in their study of religions. This means to empathize with a religious worldview while maintaining a critical (analytic, not hostile) perspective.

Iqbāl, Muḥammad

(1876-1938) Pakistan's national poet who wrote the groundbreaking work, Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam to reconcile traditional Islamic and Western-educated thinkers.

Irani

A term for someone related to Zoroastrians who remained in Persia after the Arab conquest around 636 CE; also called Zardushti.

Isaiah

(700s BCE) Hebrew prophet who preached against social inequalities in the southern kingdom of Judah following the fall of Israel in the north, and predicted a peaceful time on earth when the lion and lamb would dwell together.

Israel

Name collectively used for Jews as a people; name of modern nation-state established in May 1948; name of the northern kingdom taken from the Hebrews by Assyrians in 722 BCE.

Israelites

People of Jewish tradition named after an alternative name for the patriarch Jacob.

iṣṭa-devatā

The "chosen deity" of a Hindu who focuses worship on one among many gods and goddesses; worship can include village, family, and personal chosen deities.